Grade 7 - Quarter 1: The Kingdom of Mali and the City of Timbuktu in the 14th Century (2023)

Timbuktu, französisch Tombouctou, ist eine Stadt im westafrikanischen Mali. Die Stadt Timbuktu, die oft als populärer Begriff verwendet wird, um einen fernen und mystischen Ort zu beschreiben, war historisch bedeutsam als pulsierendes Handelsgebiet. Im 12. Jahrhundert gehörten Sklaven und Handelswaren wie Salz, Gold und Elfenbein zu den wichtigsten Handelsgütern.

Focusing on trade in the Sahara, this lesson focuses on why Timbuktu became a center of trade, what types of goods were exchanged, the spread of Islam from North Africa to West Africa, the importance of camels as a means of transport, and the vast scale of the trade route.

The second part of this lesson focuses on the Kingdom of Mali at the height of its power under the leadership of Mansa Musa. Islam's influence on Musa's leadership is highlighted by focusing on his pilgrimage to Mecca and the building of the Grand Mosque. Finally, the lesson explains why Timbuktu was not only a center of commerce but also a center of learning and why it is now considered a World Heritage Site.

Flag of Mali.image source

Camel riding in the Sahara.image source

"The Great Mosque at Djenne, the largest adobe building in the world".image source

Trade across the Sahara

Camel caravans as a means of transport

Traders transported their goods across the Sahara in large groups known as caravans. Camels were the main means of transport and were used to transport goods and people. The camel was the most important part of the caravan. Without the camel, trade across the Sahara would have been impossible. Camels are uniquely adapted to survive long periods without water. They can also survive large changes in body temperature, allowing them to withstand the heat of the day and the cold of the desert night.

A camel caravan moves through the Sahara. Some of these caravans will leave from 4am to sunset to exchange goods with other people.image source

Sometimes slaves also carried goods. Traveling by camel caravans was slow, tiring and dangerous. Perils such as excessive heat, suffocating sandstorms, starvation, thirst, and raider attacks increased the chances of getting lost. Despite all this, Trans-Saharan trade along the caravan routes connecting the oases existed from earliest times. The Silk Roads were being used as early as the late Bronze Age, with the intensive use of the roads across the desert sparked by the domestication of the camel. The caravans included an average of 1,000 camels, sometimes as many as 12,000 animals. The runners were sent ahead to the oasis to send water when the caravan was still days away. Large caravans were safer because they offered protection from bandits. Today, transportation across the desert is largely accomplished by an extensive network of paved roads, in addition to air and sea transportation. Tuareg camel caravans still travel traditional Saharan routes, transporting salt from the desert interior to communities on the desert's fringes.

Goods, including salt, were brought to Mali from Europe and North Africa, where they were traded for gold, slaves, ivory and ostrich feathers

In the ancient kingdom of Mali, the most important industry was the gold industry, while the other trade was the salt trade. Much gold was traded across the Sahara to countries along the North African coast. West African gold mines brought great wealth to West African empires such as Ghana and Mali. Other commonly traded items included ivory, kola nuts, cloth, metal products, beads and also people in the slave trade.

Salt (pictured below) was often brought from Europe and North Africa in exchange for gold (pictured above) or other commodities such as slaves or ivory.image source

Gold was plentiful in West Africa and used as a means of payment. It was also used as decoration by the wealthy, used in garments and treasured by many people. African gold was famous all over the world and many countries coveted and traded it. The gold trade brought great wealth to Mali. The main product they imported was salt, which they used for many things. Since salt was plentiful in northern Mali but scarce in the south, they had to import it. Salt was mainly used for preserving food like meat but also corpses etc. The Malians would also need salt in their diet as they don't usually get much of it in their diet. They also imported things like glass, pottery, and precious stones from North Africa.

The spread of Islam in North Africa and West Africa by traders in the 9th century

Islam had spread to North Africa by the mid-seventh century AD, just a few decades after the Prophet Muhammad and his followers moved from Mecca to Medina on the neighboring Arabian Peninsula. Although Islam's presence in West Africa dates back to the 8th century, the spread of the faith in North Africa was a gradual and complex process. Islam slowly spread into what are now the modern states of Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali, and Nigeria. Much of what we know about the early history of West Africa comes from medieval accounts written by Arab and North African geographers and historians. It is evident that Islam's early presence in West Africa was linked to trade with North Africa. Although trade between West Africa and the Mediterranean predated Islam, North African Muslims intensified trans-Saharan trade. North African traders played a key role in introducing Islam to West Africa. Between the 8th and 9th centuries, Arab traders and travelers, and later African clergy, began to spread the religion along the east coast of Africa and in western and central Sudan.

The first converts to the religion were Sudanese merchants, followed by some rulers and courtiers. However, the masses of land peasants remained relatively unaffected. In the 11th century, the intervention of the Almoravids, led by a group of Berber nomads who were strict adherents of Islamic law, gave a new impetus to the process of conversion in the Ghanaian Empire and beyond.

The history of Islam in West Africa can be divided into three phases: containment, mingling and reform. In the first phase, African kings limited Muslim influence by dividing Muslim communities; in the second phase, African rulers mixed Islam with local traditions as the population selectively adopted Islamic practices; and finally, in the third phase, African Muslims pushed for reforms to rid their societies of mixed practices and introduce Sharia.

Kingdom of Mali

A depiction of Mansa Musa in the 14th century.image source

Mali at the height of its power under Mansa Musa in the early 14th century

Mansa Musa left an important mark on Mali by introducing the kingdom to Islam and making it one of the first Muslim states in North Africa. He integrated the laws of the Koran into his country's judicial system. Cities like Timbuktu and Gao have become international centers of Islamic learning and culture. Mosques and elaborate libraries were built. The university that arose in Timbuktu was possibly the first in the world. Cities became meeting places for poets, scholars and artists. Musa became one of the most powerful and wealthy leaders of his time. Mali entered the imagination of European and Islamic countries in the 14th century.

Mansa Musa pilgrimage to Mecca

A camel caravan moves through the Sahara. Some of these caravans will leave from 4am to sunset to exchange goods with other people.image source

Musa is best known for his pilgrimage to Mecca, a visit that put Mali on the map. In 1339, Mali appeared on a “map of the world” after his pilgrimage. In 1367, another world map showed a road leading from North Africa through the Atlas Mountains to western Sudan. In 1375, a Third World map showed a richly dressed monarch with a large nugget of gold in sub-Saharan Africa. Trade between Egypt and Mali also flourished.

On his return from Mecca, Musa brought with him an Arabic library, religious scholars, and architects; who helped him build royal palace universities, libraries and mosques throughout his kingdom. He strengthened Islam and promoted education, trade and commerce in Mali. He laid the foundation for Walata, Jenne and Timbuktu to become the cultural and commercial center of North Africa.

Mansa Kankan Musa ruled with all the ideals of a good Muslim king. He died in the mid-14th century and Mali was never the same. Internal disputes between the ruling families weakened Mali's governance and its network of states began to unravel. Then, in 1430, a group of Berbers took over much of Mali's territory, including Timbuktu.

Construction of the Great Mosque

The Great Mosque of Djenné, the largest adobe building in the world.image source

The Great Mosque of Djenné is the largest adobe building in the world and is considered by many architects to be the greatest achievement of the Sudanese-Sahelian architectural style, albeit with clear Islamic influences. Originally built in the 13th or 14th century, reconstruction of what is now the Great Mosque began in 1906 and was probably completed between 1907 and 1909. The construction of the mosque was overseen and directed by the head of the Djenné stonemasons' guild, Ismaila Traoré. At the time, Djenné was part of the French West African colony and the French may have offered political and economic support for the construction of the mosque and a nearby madrasa. The structure of the river-lined small town of Djenné, with a population of about 23,000 and around 2,000 houses, most of which retain the traditional Malian style.

The city of Timbuktu

A portrait of Al-Hasan ibn Muhammad Al-Wazzan, known in the West as Leo Africanus.image source

Leo Africanus' eyewitness accounts of his travels and descriptions of Timbuktu in his book Description of Africa (1550)

For centuries, caravans were the primary mode of transport for goods traded between the Mediterranean and Sudan. Cloths, salt, metals, beads and writing paper were brought to what is now Mali from Europe and the Maghreb, where they were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and ostrich feathers.

The last caravan routes were closed in 1933. Leo traveled along these caravan routes to the Sahara and twice to Timbuktu; once, as a young man, he accompanied his uncle to visit the Sultan of Sudan; and once, a few years later, on a longer journey through what was then "Black Africa".

Below is Leo Africanus' description of Africa and Timbuktu in particular, written around 1492.

“The name of this kingdom is modern, after a city built by a king named Mansa Suleyman in AD 610 about twelve miles from a branch of the Niger. Timbuktu houses are huts made of mud-covered sticks with thatched roofs. In the center of the city is a temple built of stone and mortar, and there is also a large palace built by the same architect where the king lives. The shops of craftsmen, merchants and especially weavers of cotton fabrics are very numerous. Cloths are also imported to Timbuktu by Berber traders from Europe. The town's women maintain the custom of covering their faces with a veil, except for the slaves, who sell all the food. The inhabitants are very rich, especially the foreigners who have settled in the country; so much so that the current king, because of his wealth, gave two of his daughters in marriage to two brothers, both businessmen. There are many fountains with fresh water in Timbuktu. Grains and animals are plentiful, so the consumption of milk and butter is considerable. But salt is in very short supply because it is brought in from Tegaza, about 800 kilometers from Timbuktu. I happened to be in this town at a time when a shipment of salt was being sold for eighty ducats. The king has a rich treasure of gold coins and bars.

The royal court is magnificent and very well organized. When the king moves from one city to another with the people of his court, he rides on a camel and the horses are led by the hand by servants. When it is necessary to fight, servants ride camels, and all soldiers ride horses. If anyone wants to speak to the king, he must kneel and bow down before him; but this is required only of those who have never spoken to the king or ambassadors before. This king only wages war against neighboring enemies and against those who do not want to pay tribute to him. If he gets a victory, he sells them all - even the children - in the Timbuktu market.

Only small and poor horses are born in this country. Merchants use them for their travels and courtiers use them to get around the city. But the good horses come from Berberia. They arrive in a caravan and ten or twelve days later are taken to the ruler, who takes as many as he wants and pays them accordingly.

A rusty page from "A Geographical History of Africa" ​​by Leo Africanus.image source

The king is a declared enemy of the Jews. He will not allow anyone to live in the city. If he hears that a Berber merchant is visiting them or doing business with them, he confiscates their goods. There are numerous judges, teachers and priests in Timbuktu, all duly appointed by the king. He greatly honors learning. Many manuscript books imported from Berberia are also sold. More profit is made from this trade than from any other commodity.

Instead of minted money, nuggets of pure gold are used; and small mussel shells brought from Persia for small purchases.

The people of Timbuktu are peaceful by nature. They have a habit of walking around the city almost continuously at night between 10pm and 1am (except for the gold sellers), playing musical instruments and dancing. The citizens have at their service many slaves, men and women.

The city is very threatened by fire. When I was there on my second trip, half the city burned down within five hours. But the wind was fierce, and residents of the other half of town began moving their belongings, afraid the other half would burn.

There are no gardens or orchards in the Timbuktu area.”

Timbuktu as a trading center on the Trans-Saharan caravan route

The trade route through the Sahara spanned a vast region between Mediterranean countries and sub-Saharan Africa. It was an important trade route from the beginning of the 8th century to the end of the 16th century. As a place where countless people traded; The Sahara was surrounded by many small trade routes. The establishment of trade connected the Europeans with the African empires of Ghana, Mali and Songhai. However, traveling through the Sahara was difficult; Transportation depended heavily on camels.

In 1235 the Ghana Empire collapsed and the Islamic Empire of Mali rose to power. Due to the strong Muslim push at the time, many Ghanaians converted to Islam. Although the gold salt trade continued, a second major trade route for gold salt emerged. This route meandered through the Sahara and further into Egypt's interior. As both routes prospered, the growing influence of Egyptian culture spread throughout Sudan. Under the Mali Empire, prosperous cities proliferated. Particular cities like Gao and Djenné on the bend of the Niger developed with great prosperity. As for Timbuktu, it has become widely known as the city of fortune. The growth of the Mali Empire led to an expansion of the region into savanna and forest. Western routes were developed and with them cities like Ouadane, Oualata, Chinguetti, Begho and Bono Manso emerged along important trade routes.

Portuguese expeditions from the West African coast created new trade routes between Europe and West Africa. European bases on the coast were established in the late 16th century. Because the Sahara route was a treacherous route, it led to a weakening of political and economic influence in North Africa. In 1591 the Moroccan War devastated Timbuktu and Gao, important trading centers. The aftermath of the war significantly reduced trade. Trade routes across the Sahara continued after the war. After the French invasion, railways were built and trade routes from West Africa became dominant. From the mid-20th century, several nations gained independence.

Or Reign of Askia Muhammad

Goods coming from the Mediterranean coast and salt traded for gold in Timbuktu

From the 11th century, Timbuktu became an important port where West African and North African goods were traded. Goods from the Mediterranean coast and salt were exchanged for gold in Timbuktu. Salt, books and gold were the main commodities traded in Timbuktu. Salt was extracted from the mines of Tegaza and Taoudenit in the north, gold from the vast gold mines of Boure and Banbuk, and books were the ingenious work of black and Arab scholars.

Timbuktu had been an important trading route across the Sahara. Goods from the Mediterranean coast and salt from Central Sahara were exchanged for gold in Timbuktu. Timbuktu's prosperity attracted African scholars and Arab traders from North Africa.

Pictured above are gold nuggets exchanged for salt/or other commodities.image source

Timbuktu specialized in knowledge and book trade. [This is consistent with the CAPS syllabus and does not just focus on Muhammad's rule]

Under the rule of Askia Muhammed (1493-1591), Timbuktu became an important center for Islamic learning, engineering, medicine and architecture. With Sankore Maddressah (comparable to an Islamic university) campus attended by around 25,000 students, Timbuktu became an intellectual and religious center and served as a distribution platform for scholars and books. Books were not only written in Timbuktu, but also imported and copied. In fact, there was a local book copying industry in the city.

Hundreds and thousands of manuscripts have been written over the centuries. Written in elaborate calligraphy, the manuscripts constitute a compendium teaching everything from law, science, and medicine to history and politics. Timbuktu is said to have benefited more from the book trade than any other industry.

Timbuktu as a learning center

Math, Chemistry, Physics, Optics, Astronomy, Medicine, History, Geography, Traditions of Islam, Government Laws and much more

Some of the 20,000 ancient manuscripts of the Ahmed Baba Institute. Photography: Ben Curtis/AP.image source

The Golden Age of Islam is traditionally dated from the mid-7th to mid-13th centuries. During this period, Muslim rulers built one of the largest empires in history. “In Timbuktu there are numerous judges, scholars and priests, all well paid by the king, who greatly honors learned men. Many manuscript books from the Barbary are sold. These sales are more profitable than any other commodity,” wrote Leo Africanus in the 16th century. During this period, artists, engineers, scholars, poets, philosophers, geographers and traders from the Islamic world contributed to agriculture, art, economics, industry, law, literature, navigation, philosophy, science and history, preserving traditions and adding our own inventions and innovations. Also at this time the Muslim world became an important intellectual center of science, philosophy, medicine and education.

Although mosques such as sankore were centers of learning, much of the day-to-day teaching took place more informally in the homes of the scholars. The core of the Islamic doctrinal tradition is the transmission of texts, transmitted from teacher to student through a chain of transmitters, preferably through the shortest and most reputable group of intermediaries. The student listened to the teacher's dictation, wrote their own copy and read it out or listened to another student. Scholars had their own private libraries to help them teach.

Timbuktu Manuscripts Project and South African Cooperation

The city and its desert surroundings are an archive of Arabic and African handwritten texts written in Arabic script between the 13th and 20th centuries. The Timbuktu Manuscript Libraries are important repositories of scholarly production in West Africa and the Sahara. Given the large number of manuscript collections, it is surprising that Timbuktu is largely unknown and underused as an archive.

The photo above is an example of a deteriorating manuscript. The Timbuktu Manuscript Project aims to preserve the contents of these manuscripts.image source

The manuscripts are written testimonies to the skills of African scientists in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, medicine and climatology in the Middle Ages.

South Africa is leading a project to build a new library to house between 200,000 and 300,000 ancient manuscripts currently housed in 24 private libraries in and around the city of Mali and to train local librarians in preserving a treasure that is literally falling into decay threatens. Launched in 2003, the South Africa-Mali Manuscript Project was the first formal cultural project of the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), the African Union's socio-economic development plan. The Timbuktu Scrolls, or Mali Scrolls, some of which date from the 13th century, are Arabic and African texts that tell of the city's glorious past; when Muslim merchants traded gold from West Africa to Europe and the Middle East in exchange for salt and other commodities. The manuscripts point to the fact that Africa has a rich legacy of written history, contradicting the popular notion that only oral traditions have preserved the continent's legacy. A South African-Malian Timbuktu Manuscripts Project was officially launched in 2003, and a major achievement of this project was the new library and archive building that opened in Timbuktu in January 2009.

Why Timbuktu is a World Heritage Site

In recognition of its importance as a site of African architecture and its academic past, UNESCO declared Timbuktu a World Heritage Site in 1990. Timbuktu was a thriving center of science that was instrumental in spreading Islam across Africa. It maintains three notable mosques and one of the largest collections of ancient manuscripts in the world. Long synonymous with the far end of the world, this West African city was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1988, many centuries after its heyday. Timbuktu can be considered an intellectual and spiritual capital in the 15th and 16th centuries and a center for the spread of Islam throughout Africa.

The criteria for declaring Timbuktu as a cultural heritage have been described as follows: a) sharing of values, (b) icon of an era and (c) interaction with the environment.

The mosques of Mali and the holy sites of Timbuktu played an important role in the early spread of Islam in Africa. The three great mosques of Timbuktu, restored by Qadi Al Aqib in the 16th century, bear witness to the city's golden age at the end of the Askia dynasty. The three mosques and mausoleums are outstanding examples of urbanization in Timbuktu.

Although these monuments are continually being restored, they are now threatened by desertification as radical Islamists known as Ansar Dine have taken over the small town in Mali and are threatening to destroy priceless monuments, religious sites and documents. Tourism suffers from years of security problems. Gunmen arrested three foreigners and killed a fourth on a street in Timbuktu last November. Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) claimed responsibility.